.. _integrate_potential_example: ===================================================== Integrating and plotting an orbit in an NFW potential ===================================================== We first need to import some relevant packages:: >>> import astropy.units as u >>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt >>> import numpy as np >>> import gala.integrate as gi >>> import gala.dynamics as gd >>> import gala.potential as gp >>> from gala.units import galactic In the examples below, we will work use the ``galactic`` `~gala.units.UnitSystem`: as I define it, this is: :math:`{\rm kpc}`, :math:`{\rm Myr}`, :math:`{\rm M}_\odot`. We first create a potential object to work with. For this example, we'll use a spherical NFW potential, parametrized by a scale radius and the circular velocity at the scale radius:: >>> pot = gp.NFWPotential.from_circular_velocity(v_c=200*u.km/u.s, ... r_s=10.*u.kpc, ... units=galactic) As a demonstration, we're going to first integrate a single orbit in this potential. The easiest way to do this is to use the `~gala.potential.PotentialBase.integrate_orbit` method of the potential object, which accepts a set of initial conditions and a specification for the time-stepping. We'll define the initial conditions as a `~gala.dynamics.PhaseSpacePosition` object:: >>> ics = gd.PhaseSpacePosition(pos=[10,0,0.] * u.kpc, ... vel=[0,175,0] * u.km/u.s) >>> orbit = gp.Hamiltonian(pot).integrate_orbit(ics, dt=2., n_steps=2000) This method returns a `~gala.dynamics.Orbit` object that contains an array of times and the (6D) position at each time-step. By default, this method uses Leapfrog integration to compute the orbit (:class:`~gala.integrate.LeapfrogIntegrator`), but you can optionally specify a different (more precise) integrator class as a keyword argument:: >>> orbit = gp.Hamiltonian(pot).integrate_orbit(ics, dt=2., n_steps=2000, ... Integrator=gi.DOPRI853Integrator) We can integrate many orbits in parallel by passing in a 2D array of initial conditions. Here, as an example, we'll generate some random initial conditions by sampling from a Gaussian around the initial orbit (with a positional scale of 100 pc, and a velocity scale of 1 km/s):: >>> norbits = 128 >>> new_pos = np.random.normal(ics.pos.xyz.to(u.pc).value, 100., ... size=(norbits,3)).T * u.pc >>> new_vel = np.random.normal(ics.vel.d_xyz.to(u.km/u.s).value, 1., ... size=(norbits,3)).T * u.km/u.s >>> new_ics = gd.PhaseSpacePosition(pos=new_pos, vel=new_vel) >>> orbits = gp.Hamiltonian(pot).integrate_orbit(new_ics, dt=2., n_steps=2000) We'll now plot the final positions of these orbits over isopotential contours. We use the :meth:`~gala.potential.Potential.plot_contours` method of the potential object to plot the potential contours. This function returns a :class:`~matplotlib.figure.Figure` object, which we can then use to over-plot the orbit points:: >>> grid = np.linspace(-15,15,64) >>> fig,ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(5,5)) >>> fig = pot.plot_contours(grid=(grid,grid,0), cmap='Greys', ax=ax) >>> fig = orbits[-1].plot(['x', 'y'], color='#9ecae1', s=1., alpha=0.5, ... axes=[ax], auto_aspect=False) # doctest: +SKIP .. plot:: :align: center :context: close-figs import astropy.units as u import numpy as np import gala.integrate as gi import gala.dynamics as gd import gala.potential as gp from gala.units import galactic np.random.seed(42) pot = gp.NFWPotential.from_circular_velocity(v_c=200*u.km/u.s, r_s=10.*u.kpc, units=galactic) ics = gd.PhaseSpacePosition(pos=[10,0,0.]*u.kpc, vel=[0,175,0]*u.km/u.s) orbit = gp.Hamiltonian(pot).integrate_orbit(ics, dt=2., n_steps=2000) norbits = 1024 new_pos = np.random.normal(ics.pos.xyz.to(u.pc).value, 100., size=(norbits,3)).T * u.pc new_vel = np.random.normal(ics.vel.d_xyz.to(u.km/u.s).value, 1., size=(norbits,3)).T * u.km/u.s new_ics = gd.PhaseSpacePosition(pos=new_pos, vel=new_vel) orbits = gp.Hamiltonian(pot).integrate_orbit(new_ics, dt=2., n_steps=2000) grid = np.linspace(-15,15,64) fig,ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(5,5)) fig = pot.plot_contours(grid=(grid,grid,0), cmap='Greys', ax=ax) orbits[-1].plot(['x', 'y'], color='#9ecae1', s=1., alpha=0.5, axes=[ax], auto_aspect=False) fig.tight_layout()